Cognition: Cognition is simply defined as knowledge and everything that is involved with the process of it. When a teacher is teaching a class he or she is imparting their knowledge to the students and the students are listening, asking questions, and talking about the topic. All of this relates to cognition and all the mental activities that relate t thinking, knowing, and remembering; knowledge.
Concept: A concept is just an idea or a notion. For example, a computer or technology would be a concept. There are many different types of computers but each one would fall under the general concept of a computer and an even broader concept of technology.
Prototype: A prototype is the first of its kind. First we create what we know to be concrete and use that as our prototype, and then comparing all subsequent objects to our prototype. One prototype is the hybrid car. The manufacturers had to create a prototype for the design to determine whether the idea was feasible and if it would be popular. Once it was determined that both would be possible, they began to mass produce cars similar to this prototype.
Algorithm: An algorithm is a step-by-step method that is followed to get to a certain outcome. One type of an algorithm is factoring. We know that if we have a function and we follow a standard procedure we will find the answer. Also, PEMDAS, or the order of operations is an algorithm because if we follow it, we are certain to get the correct answer.
Heuristic: A heuristic is a simplified way of finding a certain outcome, but this way is more error-prone. One example of this is trying to solve a hangman puzzle. One will first guess letters like r, s, t, l, n, and the vowels because they are the most common letters. While it is possible that the word may contain a letter like y or z, it is less likely so we don’t guess that until the end. Also, for word searches, if a word has a unique letter combination or two of the same, it is easier to just look at those in the puzzle. While this may not always lead to the answer the first time, it is faster than looking at each letter individually.
4. One way to use my knowledge of this chapter to improve the learning strategy is to first categorize a chapter or the desired material into main concepts to make the wide variety of material covered into a simplified few concepts. Another way is to create a prototype to just a get a base strategy which I can then tweak and improve as I go.
6. I am going to break the information down into simplified concepts to make the variety of material covered easier to remember and associate for the students.
Tuesday, November 23, 2010
Phase II - Part IV - Tyler Orner
Implicit memory vs. explicit memory: Implicit memory is when a person has the ability to learn how to do something, whereas explicit memory is when a person cannot know and declare that they know. Therefore, implicit memory is usually referred to as procedural learning and explicit memory is considered declarative memory. People with amnesia have a good implicit memory but not a good explicit memory. For example, these victims will not be able to realize that they have done something repeatedly even if they are doing something over and over, but they will improve at whatever they are doing (implicit).
Hippocampus: The hippocampus is a part of the brain that is responsible for processing explicit memories. A limbic system structure, the hippocampus captures new explicit memories of names, images, and events. Damage to this system can disrupt some types of memory. Damage to the left hippocampus have trouble remembering verbal information but have no problem recalling visual designs and locations. For people who have damage to the right hippocampus, this situation is reversed.
Recall: Most people associate memory as recall, or the ability to retrieve information not in conscious awareness. Recall can be defined most simply as the measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information that they learned previously and indentify it without any help. A fill-in-the-blank test examines how much a student can recall.
Serial positioning effect: Serial positioning effect refers to the idea or concept that we usually remember the first and last terms in a list the best. This most likely occurs because the last terms are still in our short term memory and the first terms are the ones that have been practiced the most, while the terms in the middle are usually the ones that are most likely forgotten.
Recognition: Recognition is a measure of memory where the person only needs to indentify items previously learned. This is different than recall because in recognition, people only need to “recognize” information rather than needing to have to “retrieve” the information. A multiple choice test is a common example of testing recognition.
Relearning: Relearning is a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for the second time. If someone has learned a skill but then never uses it for an extended period of time, they may forget it. So when they need to use it again, they must relearn the skill. The amount of time they save learning this skill the second time is relearning. An example of this would be a person who learns chemistry in high school but then becomes an elementary teacher. They will not use the skill, but maybe the school will decide to teach chemistry in the grade that this teacher teaches, in which case he or she must relearn chemistry. Theoretically, the skill will be easier to learn and will take less time to learn the second time.
Priming: In order to retrieve a memory you must identify the “strand” that triggers the memory. This action is not always a conscious act but is necessary for the memory to be recalled. Therefore, priming can be defined as the activation of particular associations in memory.
Mere-exposure (not in 9): The mere-exposure effect is the phenomenon that frequency creates or breeds fondness. Repeated exposure to a certain novel stimulus will usually produce an increased liking of that stimulus.
4. Maslow states that the lowest level, or base level, of needs must be satisfied first before we can begin to think about the second level/tier of needs. In the first level is our food, water, air. Then we begin to move on up from there. This can be applied to learning and memory. If someone’s needs for a more basic level have not been satisfied then the learning and memory will not be fulfilled until that need is filled. To take it to the extreme, if someone is starving; they will first satisfy their need for food before they try to learn. Another example comes when someone suffers the loss of someone close to them. They will feel a need for lovingness and until this is satisfied they will be unable to learn. This happens in school. If a student loses a family member, often their grades decrease because they are trying to satisfy a more important need. Finally, in the wake of a tragedy like 9/11 people are unable to learn or remember. When it happened people who experienced the event had trouble recalling some details because they needed to satisfy their need for safety first. Even in third grade, our teachers stopped teaching and they made us read alone while they discussed what happen amongst the other teachers. They were fulfilling this other need first.
Hippocampus: The hippocampus is a part of the brain that is responsible for processing explicit memories. A limbic system structure, the hippocampus captures new explicit memories of names, images, and events. Damage to this system can disrupt some types of memory. Damage to the left hippocampus have trouble remembering verbal information but have no problem recalling visual designs and locations. For people who have damage to the right hippocampus, this situation is reversed.
Recall: Most people associate memory as recall, or the ability to retrieve information not in conscious awareness. Recall can be defined most simply as the measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information that they learned previously and indentify it without any help. A fill-in-the-blank test examines how much a student can recall.
Serial positioning effect: Serial positioning effect refers to the idea or concept that we usually remember the first and last terms in a list the best. This most likely occurs because the last terms are still in our short term memory and the first terms are the ones that have been practiced the most, while the terms in the middle are usually the ones that are most likely forgotten.
Recognition: Recognition is a measure of memory where the person only needs to indentify items previously learned. This is different than recall because in recognition, people only need to “recognize” information rather than needing to have to “retrieve” the information. A multiple choice test is a common example of testing recognition.
Relearning: Relearning is a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for the second time. If someone has learned a skill but then never uses it for an extended period of time, they may forget it. So when they need to use it again, they must relearn the skill. The amount of time they save learning this skill the second time is relearning. An example of this would be a person who learns chemistry in high school but then becomes an elementary teacher. They will not use the skill, but maybe the school will decide to teach chemistry in the grade that this teacher teaches, in which case he or she must relearn chemistry. Theoretically, the skill will be easier to learn and will take less time to learn the second time.
Priming: In order to retrieve a memory you must identify the “strand” that triggers the memory. This action is not always a conscious act but is necessary for the memory to be recalled. Therefore, priming can be defined as the activation of particular associations in memory.
Mere-exposure (not in 9): The mere-exposure effect is the phenomenon that frequency creates or breeds fondness. Repeated exposure to a certain novel stimulus will usually produce an increased liking of that stimulus.
4. Maslow states that the lowest level, or base level, of needs must be satisfied first before we can begin to think about the second level/tier of needs. In the first level is our food, water, air. Then we begin to move on up from there. This can be applied to learning and memory. If someone’s needs for a more basic level have not been satisfied then the learning and memory will not be fulfilled until that need is filled. To take it to the extreme, if someone is starving; they will first satisfy their need for food before they try to learn. Another example comes when someone suffers the loss of someone close to them. They will feel a need for lovingness and until this is satisfied they will be unable to learn. This happens in school. If a student loses a family member, often their grades decrease because they are trying to satisfy a more important need. Finally, in the wake of a tragedy like 9/11 people are unable to learn or remember. When it happened people who experienced the event had trouble recalling some details because they needed to satisfy their need for safety first. Even in third grade, our teachers stopped teaching and they made us read alone while they discussed what happen amongst the other teachers. They were fulfilling this other need first.
Phase II - Part II - Tyler Orner
4. Operant learning definitely has its place in our school. Operant learning occurs when a behavior is either strengthened by a reinforcer or diminished by a punisher. This occurs in various instances throughout our school such as detention, the deduction of a final exam, and awards such as student of the month. A detention is a negative reinforce because it takes away the time of the student and is promoting, or reinforcing, the idea that the student should follow the rules. The deduction of the final exam is also a negative reinforcer, but is one that the student likes. The final is taken away; making it negative, but it promoting the behavior of working hard and doing ones work. Finally, the student of the month is a positive reinforcer since it gives the student an award and is promoting a positive attitude in the classroom.
8. I feel that grades do fall under this Chapter. For example, if one person sees that someone received a good grade, they are likely to try and reciprocate the actions of the person who got a good grade. This could be interpreted as observational learning. Also, just receiving a grade alone will be operant conditioning because a good grade is reinforcing the positive behavior of hard work and studying whereas a bad grade also reinforces the same desired behavior of hard work and studying.
9. I do agree with this positive bias that Skinner’s research had on operant learning. For mainly one reason, a lot of his methods are still in use today. One example is how teachers teach their classes. The successful and good teachers are the ones that individualize their class for the students that they have in them. Another example is in the workplace. Employers may give raises or rewards, whether monetary or not, to employees who are successful in reaching their goals, targets, or just doing a job-well-done.
C. The students in this class learn in all different types of ways. Some of the more common and reoccurring answers were that the students learned by listening to lectures (auditory), looking at pictures and diagrams (visual), and others learned best by reading and writing notes. This will be helpful into designing our project because it will allow us to structure our style towards fitting and incorporating everyone’s needs. One way to do this is to create a PowerPoint for our visual learners, lecture about it for the auditory learners, which then allows the remaining students to take additional notes.
8. I feel that grades do fall under this Chapter. For example, if one person sees that someone received a good grade, they are likely to try and reciprocate the actions of the person who got a good grade. This could be interpreted as observational learning. Also, just receiving a grade alone will be operant conditioning because a good grade is reinforcing the positive behavior of hard work and studying whereas a bad grade also reinforces the same desired behavior of hard work and studying.
9. I do agree with this positive bias that Skinner’s research had on operant learning. For mainly one reason, a lot of his methods are still in use today. One example is how teachers teach their classes. The successful and good teachers are the ones that individualize their class for the students that they have in them. Another example is in the workplace. Employers may give raises or rewards, whether monetary or not, to employees who are successful in reaching their goals, targets, or just doing a job-well-done.
C. The students in this class learn in all different types of ways. Some of the more common and reoccurring answers were that the students learned by listening to lectures (auditory), looking at pictures and diagrams (visual), and others learned best by reading and writing notes. This will be helpful into designing our project because it will allow us to structure our style towards fitting and incorporating everyone’s needs. One way to do this is to create a PowerPoint for our visual learners, lecture about it for the auditory learners, which then allows the remaining students to take additional notes.
Phase II - Part I - Tyler Orner
How does biology play a role in operant conditioning? Researchers have found that animals will not go against their natural instincts if a certain desired behavior compromises their instincts. This is known as instinctive drift, when animals will follow their instincts rather than performing a desired behavior, even if they are being trained to do so otherwise.
Research after Skinner: Skinner believed that behavior was shaped by external experiences, rather than thoughts. So he felt that we should give rewards to promote a desirable behavior and not worry about a person’s freedom or dignity. He believed that in the classroom, individualized instruction should be performed, which has begun to occur and studies have been conducted to determine whether this and the use of positive reinforcements have a positive impact on the grade a student receives. Recently researchers have studied the effects of primary and secondary reinforcers. While many were and still are critical of Skinner, his ideas are currently in existence today.
(The following apply to observational learning)
Modeling: Modeling is the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. From this is where we can trace many of our social behaviors. What we see or observe, we do ourselves, and this is modeling.
Mirror neurons: Mirror neurons are frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.
Albert Bandura: Albert Bandura is one of the original researchers when it comes to dealing with observational learning. Bandura’s experiment with the children outlashing against the Bobo doll shows that children, and others, tend to observe certain behaviors from others, and when they are faced with certain situations they are likely to act in a similar fashion. His findings can help explain why some connections exist. For example, they may help explain why abusive parents tend to have aggressive children.
Prosocial models: Prosocial models are positive, constructive, helpful behaviors. Prosocial models can help change people actions or influence their actions to be positive or socially pleasing based on their own actions.
The impact of television (dun dun dun): (page 338) During the first eighteen years of someone’s life who lives in a developed country, they are more likely going to spend more time watching TV then they will spend in school. With so many violent shows on, especially during prime time hours for these children, through observational learning, children are more likely to repeat these violent of negative behaviors.
The good news about TV (from Chapter 1): (page 338) If a child sees prosocial behavior on the TV and is frequently exposed to positive behavior, then the child is most likely going to act in a more positive way in society.
Desensitizing of youth: (page 340) By watching more TV, and the violence that occurs, the youth are likely to pick up on what is happening and learn by observing what is happening on their show. When this occurs, they become less likely to react or respond when an actual violent crime occurs in real life.
Provide one example of Observational Learning from your lifetime (make sure that each group member has their own example to post to the blog): In soccer, I watched my favorite player do a move that would continually beat players over and over again. The move was quite easy but if done properly could be very deceptive. I practiced this move and have since used it to my advantage. Another example is when I saw two kids get into a fight and then their consequences. By seeing the outcome, I learned to not do what they did, in this case fight.
Research after Skinner: Skinner believed that behavior was shaped by external experiences, rather than thoughts. So he felt that we should give rewards to promote a desirable behavior and not worry about a person’s freedom or dignity. He believed that in the classroom, individualized instruction should be performed, which has begun to occur and studies have been conducted to determine whether this and the use of positive reinforcements have a positive impact on the grade a student receives. Recently researchers have studied the effects of primary and secondary reinforcers. While many were and still are critical of Skinner, his ideas are currently in existence today.
(The following apply to observational learning)
Modeling: Modeling is the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. From this is where we can trace many of our social behaviors. What we see or observe, we do ourselves, and this is modeling.
Mirror neurons: Mirror neurons are frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.
Albert Bandura: Albert Bandura is one of the original researchers when it comes to dealing with observational learning. Bandura’s experiment with the children outlashing against the Bobo doll shows that children, and others, tend to observe certain behaviors from others, and when they are faced with certain situations they are likely to act in a similar fashion. His findings can help explain why some connections exist. For example, they may help explain why abusive parents tend to have aggressive children.
Prosocial models: Prosocial models are positive, constructive, helpful behaviors. Prosocial models can help change people actions or influence their actions to be positive or socially pleasing based on their own actions.
The impact of television (dun dun dun): (page 338) During the first eighteen years of someone’s life who lives in a developed country, they are more likely going to spend more time watching TV then they will spend in school. With so many violent shows on, especially during prime time hours for these children, through observational learning, children are more likely to repeat these violent of negative behaviors.
The good news about TV (from Chapter 1): (page 338) If a child sees prosocial behavior on the TV and is frequently exposed to positive behavior, then the child is most likely going to act in a more positive way in society.
Desensitizing of youth: (page 340) By watching more TV, and the violence that occurs, the youth are likely to pick up on what is happening and learn by observing what is happening on their show. When this occurs, they become less likely to react or respond when an actual violent crime occurs in real life.
Provide one example of Observational Learning from your lifetime (make sure that each group member has their own example to post to the blog): In soccer, I watched my favorite player do a move that would continually beat players over and over again. The move was quite easy but if done properly could be very deceptive. I practiced this move and have since used it to my advantage. Another example is when I saw two kids get into a fight and then their consequences. By seeing the outcome, I learned to not do what they did, in this case fight.
Survey in Which We Used
Please answer these questions:
1. How long (in hours) do you spend doing homework or studying each night?
2. How many nights before a test do you begin to study?
3. What do you do in order to prepare for a test?
4. In class, what is the most beneficial learning strategy? (i.e. lecture, class discussion, demonstration, etc.)
5. What grade do you normally receive?(circle one)
a. A
b. B
c. C
d. D
e. F
1. How long (in hours) do you spend doing homework or studying each night?
2. How many nights before a test do you begin to study?
3. What do you do in order to prepare for a test?
4. In class, what is the most beneficial learning strategy? (i.e. lecture, class discussion, demonstration, etc.)
5. What grade do you normally receive?(circle one)
a. A
b. B
c. C
d. D
e. F
Phase 2, Part 5~Collin Brown
Syntax- The ways we use words to formulate sentences. In French, pronouns normally come in between the object and the verb, as opposed to English, where the pronoun comes after the verb.
Babbling Stage- The part in a baby's life when they can form sounds that do not necessarily make sense, but are sounds none the less. A baby saying ga-ga has no real meaning and is an example of babble.
One-Word Stage- After turning one, the baby can say words with a conveyed meaning that are usually only one word or syllable. The baby word, "ba-ba" can be used when reaching for a bottle. The word kind of sounds like bottle and is therefore conveying a meaning.
Two-Word Stage- Before reaching the age of two, babies can say two-word sentence fragments. Babies sometimes say things like "hold you" (something I used to say when I was little), when they wanted to be held.
Telegraphic Speech- Speech that is fragmented and contains mostly just nouns and verbs but can fully convery a meaning. Phrases such as "THEY'RE HERE. ENTER BUILDING" are short, convey meaning, are fragments of sentences, and are commonly used in telegraphs. This type of writing is a good example of how most babies speak in the two-word stage.
Linguistic Determinism- The language we speak and understand has a direct influence on how we think and comprehend things. In French, every noun has a gender. Therefore, French people perceive common items as he/she through language.
Babbling Stage- The part in a baby's life when they can form sounds that do not necessarily make sense, but are sounds none the less. A baby saying ga-ga has no real meaning and is an example of babble.
One-Word Stage- After turning one, the baby can say words with a conveyed meaning that are usually only one word or syllable. The baby word, "ba-ba" can be used when reaching for a bottle. The word kind of sounds like bottle and is therefore conveying a meaning.
Two-Word Stage- Before reaching the age of two, babies can say two-word sentence fragments. Babies sometimes say things like "hold you" (something I used to say when I was little), when they wanted to be held.
Telegraphic Speech- Speech that is fragmented and contains mostly just nouns and verbs but can fully convery a meaning. Phrases such as "THEY'RE HERE. ENTER BUILDING" are short, convey meaning, are fragments of sentences, and are commonly used in telegraphs. This type of writing is a good example of how most babies speak in the two-word stage.
Linguistic Determinism- The language we speak and understand has a direct influence on how we think and comprehend things. In French, every noun has a gender. Therefore, French people perceive common items as he/she through language.
Phase Two Part Six
The Learning Strategies:
1. Reading/Memorizing:
Have a representative sample of people read an article based on neuroscience. Have the sample of people come up with a varitey of numonic devices in order to memorize the infromation.
2. Visual Aids/Demonstration:
Have an instructor demonstrate neuroscience to a representative sample of people through a brain activity. After, have students make some sort of of visual aid to use for their own learning experience.
3. Lecture/Listening:
Have a neuroscience professor lecture to a repreesentative sample of students on the topic of neuroscience for about an hour. Record the lecture on a recording machine and listen to the lecture before one goes to bed.
4. Reading/Writing Notes:
Have a representative sample of students read an informational essay on neuroscience. Throughout the reading session, make notes that would cover main topics essential for the chapter.
5. Hands on/Project:
Have a representative sample of students build a model of the brain and label each part and its functions. Present the structure in front of the class and have students actually hold the structure.
6. Video/Audio:
Have a representative sample of students create a video or album based on neuroscience. The video should include the necessary visuals along with appropriate concepts and terms.
1. Reading/Memorizing:
Have a representative sample of people read an article based on neuroscience. Have the sample of people come up with a varitey of numonic devices in order to memorize the infromation.
2. Visual Aids/Demonstration:
Have an instructor demonstrate neuroscience to a representative sample of people through a brain activity. After, have students make some sort of of visual aid to use for their own learning experience.
3. Lecture/Listening:
Have a neuroscience professor lecture to a repreesentative sample of students on the topic of neuroscience for about an hour. Record the lecture on a recording machine and listen to the lecture before one goes to bed.
4. Reading/Writing Notes:
Have a representative sample of students read an informational essay on neuroscience. Throughout the reading session, make notes that would cover main topics essential for the chapter.
5. Hands on/Project:
Have a representative sample of students build a model of the brain and label each part and its functions. Present the structure in front of the class and have students actually hold the structure.
6. Video/Audio:
Have a representative sample of students create a video or album based on neuroscience. The video should include the necessary visuals along with appropriate concepts and terms.
Phase 2, Part 5, Question 5
Question 5- I can use the knowledge of language acquisition to create a learning strategy by formulating a learning strategy that is easily understood by a common population. For example, understanding the way English speaking people comprehend things, or their linguistic determinism, can help me to develop a learning strategy that goes hand-in-hand with how the English speaking person thinks.
Phase 2, Part 3
To collect the most accurate data, we will create a survey of five simple questions. We will make several copies of the survey and ask people to fill out the survey in each of our classes, at lunch, and in homeroom so we get a wide range of different types of students. We will use trust to believe that we are getting an honest response from our classmates. We will use the data collected to our advantage since we are gathering information on how most students learn the best. Once we have collected the data, we will record answers based on each question and break them up to find the most common answers. The collected data will help us create our learning strategy by helping us decide what specific learning strategies to use and which ones we should not use based on students common answers.
When we present this data in December, we will have bar charts to show which strategies are used most by students at Wilson High School and correlation studies among hours studies per night and grades. The information will be easy to understand when we categorize and break down the information from each survey. I believe our data will be helpful and useful to us as well as others.
Our tool for collecting data was most definitely useful and somewhat accurate in collecting the information because it helped us determine what most successful students do in order to study and receive good grades. We also determine what learning strategy helps students learn the material the most. This survey gave us a basis and will help us start building our learning strategy. To supplement our data we could have used a random sample and also collected more responses from all ages. We could also have reached out to students beyond Wilson in case the different schools condition students to learn in a certain way.
This data can apply to the real world since it asks what strategy helps students learn better. This can transfer to college and eventually to the work force when one has to be trained for a job. One must learn and remember information for a career, not just memorize and forget the information later. The data could be useful to teachers and coaches. Coaches who want their players to remember specific plays could benefit from useful learning strategies. We will share our data with or teachers and coaches in hopes that the information will be considered and used. Then hopefully through these strategies, students will become more successful in class and life.
When we present this data in December, we will have bar charts to show which strategies are used most by students at Wilson High School and correlation studies among hours studies per night and grades. The information will be easy to understand when we categorize and break down the information from each survey. I believe our data will be helpful and useful to us as well as others.
Our tool for collecting data was most definitely useful and somewhat accurate in collecting the information because it helped us determine what most successful students do in order to study and receive good grades. We also determine what learning strategy helps students learn the material the most. This survey gave us a basis and will help us start building our learning strategy. To supplement our data we could have used a random sample and also collected more responses from all ages. We could also have reached out to students beyond Wilson in case the different schools condition students to learn in a certain way.
This data can apply to the real world since it asks what strategy helps students learn better. This can transfer to college and eventually to the work force when one has to be trained for a job. One must learn and remember information for a career, not just memorize and forget the information later. The data could be useful to teachers and coaches. Coaches who want their players to remember specific plays could benefit from useful learning strategies. We will share our data with or teachers and coaches in hopes that the information will be considered and used. Then hopefully through these strategies, students will become more successful in class and life.
Phase 2, Part 4, Question 5
Bloom- Bloom's theory involves three different memory or learning strategies. It relates to memory we learned about by explaining certain ways people remember things. It can help us develop learning strategies by narrowing down student's ways of learning. His theory provides a basic outline of how some people learn, through categories of cognitive, psychomotor, or affective domains. Each relates specifically to individual student's learning styles.
Gardner- The theory of multiple intelligences relates to Bloom's theory in that it breaks up categories for certain types of learning, but breaks them down into 8 categories instead of 3. It ties into memory specifically by relating to different people's ways of memorizing. By analyzing the ways certain people learn in a classroom setting, we can attend to each individual learning style of the student.
Gardner- The theory of multiple intelligences relates to Bloom's theory in that it breaks up categories for certain types of learning, but breaks them down into 8 categories instead of 3. It ties into memory specifically by relating to different people's ways of memorizing. By analyzing the ways certain people learn in a classroom setting, we can attend to each individual learning style of the student.
Phase 2, Part 4 ~Collin Brown
Imagery and Memory- The easiest and most accessible form of memory. It is easiest to remember words when associated with an image. Mostly, we remember visuals of good or bad moments more than moments that had no effect on us. An example would be remembering that the use of ships were common in the War of 1812, so when you think of ships, you will most likely remember the war's details better by association.
Mnemonics- Help to remember order or long passages. It uses association of visual items with the thing you are supposed to memorize. By visualizing the object, the word will come by association. Also, these devices can be applied using sound associations. Creating a song to remember order of something is an example of a mnemonic.
Ways to Organize Information for Encoding:
Chunking- A way to recall information by grouping words into groups that make sense to us. this can also occur with numbers. Eats Cake Boy is less easily memorized than Boy Eats Cake.
Hierarchies- Association with an expertise in an area. People use concepts from this expertise in order to memorize by using the concepts that relate to the information. I could associate memorization with rankings of the best lacrosse teams in the nation. Comparing the best part of the data to the best team in the nation.
Memory Trace- Recalling information based on a cue that reawakens that certain information. Helps us retrieve information that lies in long term, sensory, or short term memory.
Iconic Memory- Instant photographic memory. Our eyes can take in detail from an image in very small amounts of time. We can produce this image in our minds with precise detail. The card memory game with flipping and matching cards. Our memories can remember where the matching card is from seeing it only for a second.
Echoic Memory- Instant sound memory. Works in the same way as iconic memory but with sounds that are heard instantly instead of pictures being seen. This form of memory is more unstable than iconic memory. Memorizing song lyrics or commercial jingles are forms of echoic memory.
Long Term Potentiation- Strengthening of potential neural firing by stimulating memory neurons. It results in less prompting to release a neurotransmitter and increased receptor sites. It helps for learning and remembering by association.
Amnesia- The inability to formulate new memories or have old ones. Can occur from brain damage. Some people with amnesia can learn certain special memory skills but have no recollection of having learned the skill. In the movie 50 First Dates, Drew Barrymore forgets the day before everyday after she has a vicious accident. When Adam Sandler goes to make to her, he sees that she has painted a lot of pictures of him but has no idea why she did it.
Mnemonics- Help to remember order or long passages. It uses association of visual items with the thing you are supposed to memorize. By visualizing the object, the word will come by association. Also, these devices can be applied using sound associations. Creating a song to remember order of something is an example of a mnemonic.
Ways to Organize Information for Encoding:
Chunking- A way to recall information by grouping words into groups that make sense to us. this can also occur with numbers. Eats Cake Boy is less easily memorized than Boy Eats Cake.
Hierarchies- Association with an expertise in an area. People use concepts from this expertise in order to memorize by using the concepts that relate to the information. I could associate memorization with rankings of the best lacrosse teams in the nation. Comparing the best part of the data to the best team in the nation.
Memory Trace- Recalling information based on a cue that reawakens that certain information. Helps us retrieve information that lies in long term, sensory, or short term memory.
Iconic Memory- Instant photographic memory. Our eyes can take in detail from an image in very small amounts of time. We can produce this image in our minds with precise detail. The card memory game with flipping and matching cards. Our memories can remember where the matching card is from seeing it only for a second.
Echoic Memory- Instant sound memory. Works in the same way as iconic memory but with sounds that are heard instantly instead of pictures being seen. This form of memory is more unstable than iconic memory. Memorizing song lyrics or commercial jingles are forms of echoic memory.
Long Term Potentiation- Strengthening of potential neural firing by stimulating memory neurons. It results in less prompting to release a neurotransmitter and increased receptor sites. It helps for learning and remembering by association.
Amnesia- The inability to formulate new memories or have old ones. Can occur from brain damage. Some people with amnesia can learn certain special memory skills but have no recollection of having learned the skill. In the movie 50 First Dates, Drew Barrymore forgets the day before everyday after she has a vicious accident. When Adam Sandler goes to make to her, he sees that she has painted a lot of pictures of him but has no idea why she did it.
Phase 2, Part 2, Questions 4 and 10~Collin Brown
Question 4- I think both classical and operant conditioning play a role within Wilson. Classical conditioning can be seen when many bad grades are given to students, the teacher is often associated with being a bad teacher. Operant conditioning can be seen when students study harder, they receive better grades. Therefore, when they have a test, they will be conditioned to study harder so they receive a better grade.
Question 10- I play the game of lacrosse based on what I see at the highest level of play. If I see a good player doing something that works, I will use it. It applies psychologically in classical conditioning. I associate good players with knowing what they are doing because it got them to that point. In biology, my mind is processing a new move to use.
Question 10- I play the game of lacrosse based on what I see at the highest level of play. If I see a good player doing something that works, I will use it. It applies psychologically in classical conditioning. I associate good players with knowing what they are doing because it got them to that point. In biology, my mind is processing a new move to use.
Phase 2, Part 1 ~Collin Brown
Primary Reinforcers- Primary Reinforcers are innately satisfying. They are basically things we need to survive. They can also be described as an unconscious need or relief of something bad. For example, relieving yourself in the bathroom, drinking, sleeping.
Conditioned Reinforcers- Conditioned Reinforcers are learned reinforcers that are associated with primary reinforcers. If getting milk and cookies is usually occurring right before sleep, the person need milk and cookies to go to sleep. The milk and cookies are the conditioned reinforcers.
Immediate Reinforcers- Immediate reinforcers provide the wanted result immediately after the performed action to get the reinforcement. For example, the loss of hunger after eating comes immediately after eating a lot.
Delayed Reinforcers- With Delayed Reinforcers, the wanted result comes later than the performed action. No learning may occur in non-humans because most animals do not have the patience to wait for the next reinforcer. Humans are only sometimes conditioned to delayed reinforcers. For example, a person will wait in a line at the amusement park to ride one ride. Waiting in line takes a long time, but the reinforcement is the ride.
Reinforcement Schedules:
Fixed-Ratio- Steady reinforcers that come after a set number of responses. For example, after hitting a button five times, a rat receives food.
Variable-Ratio- The reinforcers occur randomly after the responses. If Reinforcers go up, the responses go up. For example, entering a raffle is on a variable ratio schedule.
Fixed-interval- Reinforce the response after a set time period. The number of responses greatly increases as the reinforcement time gets close. The pay-stub at the end week makes workers work harder closer to when they are going to receive their pay-stub.
Variable-interval- Are reinforced after a random amount of time. Slow, steady responses occur because reinforcers can occur at any time.
Punishment- is the opposite of reinforcement. It decreases the amount of responses instead of increasing the amount of responses, or wanted behavior. There are drawbacks however, including doing the unwanted behavior where punishment is absent and increased aggressiveness and anger towards the punisher. Punishment includes putting a dog into a cage if he bites someone.
Cognitive Map- A cognitive map is developing and idea or representation of what someone is looking at or exploring. If a new student is in a school and is learning his/her way around, this is building a cognitive map.
Latent Learning- Someone being demonstrated as learning something with evidence only when a reward is present. Boy in a new school is told to find a certain room in order to win a prize. He will automatically recall his cognitive map better because he has a drive.
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic motivation- Intrinsic motivation is wanting to do something for your own wants, such as pride, while extrinsic motivation is wanting to do something for rewards or to avoid punishment.
How does cognition impact operant conditioning?- The cognitive processes determine what we think, perceive, and expect to happen. This impacts operant conditioning by following the rules of conditioning. If we think something will provide reinforcement, we will do it, if not, we will not do it. The mental processes that determine what we do impact how we respond to conditioning.
Conditioned Reinforcers- Conditioned Reinforcers are learned reinforcers that are associated with primary reinforcers. If getting milk and cookies is usually occurring right before sleep, the person need milk and cookies to go to sleep. The milk and cookies are the conditioned reinforcers.
Immediate Reinforcers- Immediate reinforcers provide the wanted result immediately after the performed action to get the reinforcement. For example, the loss of hunger after eating comes immediately after eating a lot.
Delayed Reinforcers- With Delayed Reinforcers, the wanted result comes later than the performed action. No learning may occur in non-humans because most animals do not have the patience to wait for the next reinforcer. Humans are only sometimes conditioned to delayed reinforcers. For example, a person will wait in a line at the amusement park to ride one ride. Waiting in line takes a long time, but the reinforcement is the ride.
Reinforcement Schedules:
Fixed-Ratio- Steady reinforcers that come after a set number of responses. For example, after hitting a button five times, a rat receives food.
Variable-Ratio- The reinforcers occur randomly after the responses. If Reinforcers go up, the responses go up. For example, entering a raffle is on a variable ratio schedule.
Fixed-interval- Reinforce the response after a set time period. The number of responses greatly increases as the reinforcement time gets close. The pay-stub at the end week makes workers work harder closer to when they are going to receive their pay-stub.
Variable-interval- Are reinforced after a random amount of time. Slow, steady responses occur because reinforcers can occur at any time.
Punishment- is the opposite of reinforcement. It decreases the amount of responses instead of increasing the amount of responses, or wanted behavior. There are drawbacks however, including doing the unwanted behavior where punishment is absent and increased aggressiveness and anger towards the punisher. Punishment includes putting a dog into a cage if he bites someone.
Cognitive Map- A cognitive map is developing and idea or representation of what someone is looking at or exploring. If a new student is in a school and is learning his/her way around, this is building a cognitive map.
Latent Learning- Someone being demonstrated as learning something with evidence only when a reward is present. Boy in a new school is told to find a certain room in order to win a prize. He will automatically recall his cognitive map better because he has a drive.
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic motivation- Intrinsic motivation is wanting to do something for your own wants, such as pride, while extrinsic motivation is wanting to do something for rewards or to avoid punishment.
How does cognition impact operant conditioning?- The cognitive processes determine what we think, perceive, and expect to happen. This impacts operant conditioning by following the rules of conditioning. If we think something will provide reinforcement, we will do it, if not, we will not do it. The mental processes that determine what we do impact how we respond to conditioning.
Consider everything you know about the way memory workds in the human brain. How can you tap into that in order to contstruct your learnign strategy? Provide at least 5 different ways to use memory to create an effective learning strategy?
In order to construct our learning strategy, we have to consider how the brain receives and stores information in the most beneficial way. Five different ways to use memory to create an effective learning strategy could include mnemonic devices, chunking, hierarchies, drawing or sketching, and talking or discussing information in a group daily.
~~Amanda
~~Amanda
How is the human mind faulty in remembering information?
The human mind is faulty in remembering information in a couple ways. First of all, our short term memories can only store seven items; therefore, we need to tap into the long term memo0ry in our learning strategy. In addition, at initial glance the sensory memory can only store information for a couple of seconds, so we need to make sure that the information can be stored longer through other senses. Finally, memory loss due to trauma makes the mind faulty; however, if we use examples that people can relate to their long-term memories instead of their short term memories there is a better chance that they will remember the information.
Monday, November 22, 2010
How can you use what you know about the history of psychology and the science behind psychology to create your learning strategy?
After researching Pavlov's conditioning experiments, I realized how much the experiments led us to find out how we learn. In addition, the science behind learning by conditioning shows that it is very effective. For instance, our memory systems have the ability to retain information that we find important. Since Pavlov included food, which causes more senses to be activated in the learning process, the experiments worked. In our final project, we can incorporate this by giving rewards for studying. Another way that we could incorporate this information into our final project would be to teach a definition by using a specific sound, smell, or feeling.
Sunday, November 21, 2010
Why does everything covered in chapters 8, 9, and 10 fall under the field of psychology?
In chapter 8, the chapter of learning, the main component is how the brain can remember, learn, and become conditioned to certain behaviors and information. The cognitive processes can be studied of how reinforcements and punishments can affect the brain. Also, in rats and mazes, experiments show the cognitive processes and how the rats developed cognitive maps of the maze. In chapter 9, the chapter regarding memory, the chapter studies how we receive, encode, process, and store the information through sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. All of these processes easily can be part of cognitive psychology since cognitive psychology itself is the study of how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information. Finally, cognitive psychology is a major part of chapter 10 as the chapter deals with thinking and language. Thinking is also known as cognition and is the mental activities associated with understanding and remembering. Cognitive psychologists study the mental activities involved in thinking.
~~Amanda
~~Amanda
Phase 2, Part 5
Computer neural networks: Computer neural networks are computer systems in artificial intelligence designed to mimic the interconnected neural units of the brain. There are thousands of connections that receive excitatory and inhibitory messages. The computer neural networks are also designed to gain strength with experience. An example of computer neural networks could be social robots. There are also neural connections in viral recognition for computers.
Language: Language is the human capacity for a way to communicate through spoken, written or signed words to combine them as we think. There are several different languages around the world. Some examples are Spanish, Chinese, French, Latin, Arabic, and sign language. All different languages combine to form different sentences and meanings.
Phonemes: Phonemes are an essential set of basic sounds. They are a small segments of sounds to form meaningful words from sounds. For example in the words kit and skill the phoneme is the "k" sound in the word.
Morpheme: A morpheme is the smallest unit of language that carries meaning. Morphemes are usually a combination of tow or more phonemes. However the words "I" and "a" are morphemes as well as phonemes. The word "unbreakable" contains three morphemes: "un," "break," and "-able."
Grammar: Grammar is a system of rules that allows us to communicate. It is the composition of sentences, phrases, and words under the rules of semantics and syntax. Some grammar parts are the usages of commas and the structure of sentences with nouns, verbs, and adjectives.
Semantics: Semantics are a set of rules we use to derive meaning and relationships from morphemes, words, and sentences. There are denotations (direct meanings) and connotations (implied meanings). For example the phrase "Raining cats and dogs" can have two meanings derived from semantics.
~~ Amanda
Language: Language is the human capacity for a way to communicate through spoken, written or signed words to combine them as we think. There are several different languages around the world. Some examples are Spanish, Chinese, French, Latin, Arabic, and sign language. All different languages combine to form different sentences and meanings.
Phonemes: Phonemes are an essential set of basic sounds. They are a small segments of sounds to form meaningful words from sounds. For example in the words kit and skill the phoneme is the "k" sound in the word.
Morpheme: A morpheme is the smallest unit of language that carries meaning. Morphemes are usually a combination of tow or more phonemes. However the words "I" and "a" are morphemes as well as phonemes. The word "unbreakable" contains three morphemes: "un," "break," and "-able."
Grammar: Grammar is a system of rules that allows us to communicate. It is the composition of sentences, phrases, and words under the rules of semantics and syntax. Some grammar parts are the usages of commas and the structure of sentences with nouns, verbs, and adjectives.
Semantics: Semantics are a set of rules we use to derive meaning and relationships from morphemes, words, and sentences. There are denotations (direct meanings) and connotations (implied meanings). For example the phrase "Raining cats and dogs" can have two meanings derived from semantics.
~~ Amanda
How do the history of psychology and applying science to Psychoogy fit into our midterm project?
The history of psychology and applying science to psychology fits into our midterm project because we want to find out how our brains can learn the best without using rote memorization. For example, to learn, we need to know if ideas are inborn or we learn through experiences. This is the common nature vs. nurture debate discussed in the history of psychology. If some ideas are inborn, than it is easier to learn than having a blank slate. Another example is that the science behind psychology, neuroscience and biology can help tell us how our brain works and processes memory. How does the brain store information and communicate it to the rest of the body. Also this can be studied through the cognitive psychology perspective of how the brain encodes, receives and stores information. If we know exactly how the brain stores information the most, then we can try to come up with a learning strategy that will easily take the information to the part of the brain that stores information.
~~Amanda
~~Amanda
Phase 2, Part 4
Memory: Memory is the accumulation of all learning and the storage and retrieval of the information. For example, students in school use a lot of memory since they have been learning for many years.
Memory loss: Memory loss occurs when memories that used to be remembered, can no longer be retrieved. Memory loss can be partial or total and can come with aging or can be caused by brain trauma. An example of memory loss by a medical problem is Alzheimer's disease.
Memory feats: Memory feats are when one has a memory that is much greater than the average person. There is incredible remembrance of words, digits, orders, and many other things. For example, a person may have a great memory feat when they can remember a very large number of the numbers of pi. Or if a couple decks of cards are shown in a random order and the person can remember the order and put it in the order.
Memory like a computer? The memory is like a computer of how it receives information through encoding, retains the information through storage, and gets is back from retrieval. Like a computer and the keys changing into different meanings on the computer, the sensory information is changed into a neural language so the brain can store and remember it.
Sensory memory: Is the immediate initial recording of sensory information after the original stimulus. The memory is temporary and is only the initial part. Part of sensory memory is iconic memory and echoic memory. Iconic memory is when you see something for a short amount of time and echoic memory is when you remember something by auditory. For example sensory memory could be in class when you are talking to a classmate and your attention is on the classmate and the teacher is giving a lecture and someone asks you what the teacher said. You may be able to remember some of the last words the teacher said.
Long term memory: Long-term memory is usually a permanent type of memory that is stored for later retrieval. Long-term memory is essentially limitless and memories become long-term memories through the meaningful associations and rehearsal. For example, long term memory occurs when people everyday remember and learn peoples names. Names are usually permanent in memories and even after years, names can usually be retrieved from the memory.
~~ Amanda
Memory loss: Memory loss occurs when memories that used to be remembered, can no longer be retrieved. Memory loss can be partial or total and can come with aging or can be caused by brain trauma. An example of memory loss by a medical problem is Alzheimer's disease.
Memory feats: Memory feats are when one has a memory that is much greater than the average person. There is incredible remembrance of words, digits, orders, and many other things. For example, a person may have a great memory feat when they can remember a very large number of the numbers of pi. Or if a couple decks of cards are shown in a random order and the person can remember the order and put it in the order.
Memory like a computer? The memory is like a computer of how it receives information through encoding, retains the information through storage, and gets is back from retrieval. Like a computer and the keys changing into different meanings on the computer, the sensory information is changed into a neural language so the brain can store and remember it.
Sensory memory: Is the immediate initial recording of sensory information after the original stimulus. The memory is temporary and is only the initial part. Part of sensory memory is iconic memory and echoic memory. Iconic memory is when you see something for a short amount of time and echoic memory is when you remember something by auditory. For example sensory memory could be in class when you are talking to a classmate and your attention is on the classmate and the teacher is giving a lecture and someone asks you what the teacher said. You may be able to remember some of the last words the teacher said.
Long term memory: Long-term memory is usually a permanent type of memory that is stored for later retrieval. Long-term memory is essentially limitless and memories become long-term memories through the meaningful associations and rehearsal. For example, long term memory occurs when people everyday remember and learn peoples names. Names are usually permanent in memories and even after years, names can usually be retrieved from the memory.
~~ Amanda
Phase 2 Part 1
Operant behavior: The operant behavior is part of operant conditioning where subjects associate behaviors with the consequences. The operant behavior is the behavior that acts on the environment to produce a rewarding or punishing stimuli. For example, if a child is crying and wants attention from his or her parents, the crying is the operant behavior and the reinforcement is if the parents attend to the crying child.
Law of effect: Law of effect is defined as "Rewarded behavior is likely to recur." If a subject associates a good reward with a behavior, the subject will usually do the behavior again in hopes of the same reward. For example when a dog performs a trick and receives a treat.
Skinner box (operant chamber): An experimental chamber in which an animal, usually rat or pigeon, presses or pecks on bars or keys to release food or water as a reward. the chamber records the responses and experiments on operant conditioning.
Shaping: Skinner used shaping in his experiment where he used reinforces such as food to change and guide an animal's actions toward a certain wanted behavior. For example, shaping occurs when one tries to train a dog how to do a trick or go to the bathroom outside.
Successive approximations: After first observing how a subject reacts before training, an experimenter would continue based on the initial behavior. By changing rewards and rewarding responses that are closer to the desired behavior. The next time, take a step closer to the desired behavior before they are rewarded until the behavior is reached.
Discriminative stimulus: Discriminative stimulus test if a subject can discriminated between different shapes, colors, sizes, and objects. With one actions or experiment of the same object, but just different shapes or colors, a subject could react one way with one shape but different with another. For example, if a dog learns to bark upon seeing a blue ball, but lay down upon seeing a green ball of the same shape and size.
Reinforcement: Reinforcement is the action or an event that causes the first action to occur more often. Reinforcement is anything that increases a behavior.
Positive reinforcement: Positive reinforcement is when a subject is given something as a stimuli after a behavior. This would make the subject do the behavior more often. An example is giving a child encouragement and praise after cleaning their room.
Negative Reinforcement: Negative reinforcement is when a stimulus is removed. This can also increase the likelihood of a behavior. An example is when a child is whining and the parents take away the toy. Also detention is taking away a student's time.
~~Amanda
Law of effect: Law of effect is defined as "Rewarded behavior is likely to recur." If a subject associates a good reward with a behavior, the subject will usually do the behavior again in hopes of the same reward. For example when a dog performs a trick and receives a treat.
Skinner box (operant chamber): An experimental chamber in which an animal, usually rat or pigeon, presses or pecks on bars or keys to release food or water as a reward. the chamber records the responses and experiments on operant conditioning.
Shaping: Skinner used shaping in his experiment where he used reinforces such as food to change and guide an animal's actions toward a certain wanted behavior. For example, shaping occurs when one tries to train a dog how to do a trick or go to the bathroom outside.
Successive approximations: After first observing how a subject reacts before training, an experimenter would continue based on the initial behavior. By changing rewards and rewarding responses that are closer to the desired behavior. The next time, take a step closer to the desired behavior before they are rewarded until the behavior is reached.
Discriminative stimulus: Discriminative stimulus test if a subject can discriminated between different shapes, colors, sizes, and objects. With one actions or experiment of the same object, but just different shapes or colors, a subject could react one way with one shape but different with another. For example, if a dog learns to bark upon seeing a blue ball, but lay down upon seeing a green ball of the same shape and size.
Reinforcement: Reinforcement is the action or an event that causes the first action to occur more often. Reinforcement is anything that increases a behavior.
Positive reinforcement: Positive reinforcement is when a subject is given something as a stimuli after a behavior. This would make the subject do the behavior more often. An example is giving a child encouragement and praise after cleaning their room.
Negative Reinforcement: Negative reinforcement is when a stimulus is removed. This can also increase the likelihood of a behavior. An example is when a child is whining and the parents take away the toy. Also detention is taking away a student's time.
~~Amanda
Phase II Part V
Insight:
When you realize the solution of a problem all-of-a-suddenly. In other words, you understand the parts of the problem and you suddenly have inspiration and can solve the problem. This is the opposite of trial and error. For example, in the game of chess insight learning is used to decide what move to make.
Confirmation Bias:
Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for something that will confirm that our ideas were correct, instead of just searching for the correct solution. This is a negative aspect to problem solving because bias alters our views of the problem.
Fixation:
Fixation is another negative aspect in problem solving. Fixation is the inability to change your perspective on a problem or issue. For instance, sometimes when we work in biology lab groups each person has a different view of the problem. Then everyone argues because we don't have the ability to change views because we don't want to be wrong.
Mental Set:
This is the tendency to follow a way that we have previously learned to solve a problem that may or may not help us to solve this problem. However, we use this method to try to solve the problem any how. For example, sometimes in math if we don't know how to solve a problem we will use a method that we already know even if it is the wrong way to solve the problem.
Functional Fixedness:
This is a form of confirmation bias when we only think of something in terms of its functionality in order to try to solve a problem. This is an ineffective way to solve problems because you are not looking at something in its entirety. One example is if we only look at an object's major function instead of everything that it is capable of doing to solve a problem.
Representativeness Heuristic:
This is a cognitive bias based on previous patterns of a similar situation. In other words, tendency to predict the likelihood of something happening based on a pattern. For instance, some people believe that if they role a dice enough times then they should get the same ratio of each number on the dice.
Phase II Part IV
Short term memory:
Information that is briefly stored is a part of the short term memory. Usually, our short term memory can store about seven items. For instance, when students cram right before a math test they use their short term memory to remember formulas. When they get the test they quickly write the formulas on the test before they forget them.
The role of emotion in memory:
Emotion allows us to remember certain situations and information better than we do without emotion because we are able to create a strong link between that emotion and the information. For instance, Dr. Stenberg reads our vocabulary words to our class at the beginning of each section. When he reads them he makes comments or pronounces the words in a way that we will remember. One word in particular is murky. He pronounces murky with an eire tone, so we remember that murky means brackish or dirty.
The Steps of Encoding:
First, we receive information through one of our senses. Then the information is transformed into information that our memory system can understand. Finally, the information is stored for later recall in our memory system.
Herman Ebbinghaus, a German philosopher, pioneered research of verbal memory. He showed that the amount remembered depends on the time spent learning by reading a list of nonsense words everyday until he could recite the list by memory. He found that as the days went on he needed to read the list fewer and fewer times in order to recite the list by memory.
Spacing Effect:
This is the tendency to remember information, in the long run, better by practicing or studying over a longer period of time rather than practicing or studying a lot over a short period of time. For example, if you try to memorize a song in one day then you might forget it in a couple of weeks; whereas, if you practice memorizing the song for a whole week then you would be more likely to remember that song in a couple of weeks.
What we encode:
We encode all of the information that enters through one of our senses. Furthermore, we usually can only recall the encoded message, how we interpreted the information, instead of the literal message.
Kinds of Encoding:
There are three kinds of encoding: acoustic encoding, visual encoding, and semantic encoding. Acoustic encoding is the process of remembering or understanding through hearing. If you are reading or talking aloud to yourself when you are studying or doing homework, you are using acoustic encoding. Visual encoding is remembering by looking at something. This is the least effective way to encode and remember information. Semantic encoding is when we remember something by creating our own meaning, instead of just remembering the words or picture. For example, if we see a list of random familiar words we might make up a sentence that relates all of the words together.
Levels of processing:
We can either process information automatically or effortfully. In automatic processing we do not need to concentrate or work hard to remember certain information or details. An example of automatic processing is recalling what show you watched on tv last night. On the other hand, effortful processing requires specific attention and effort. For instance, when you are reading a chapter in the psychology book you need to make a conscious effort to remember what you read because it does not come automatically.
Artificial Intelligence
Concept/Term:
Artificial intelligence is the science of creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when people perform them. Artificial Intelligence focuses on various psychological processes such as perception, decision-making, communication and motor functions. With the help of computer models, such processes are simulated in order to gain a better insight into human thinking and perception.
Example:
Belief Perseverance
Concept/Term:
Belief perseverance is the tendency or unwillingness to admit that their foundational premises are incorrect even when shown convincing evidence to the contrary. Belief Perseverance is this tendency to reject convincing proof and become even more tenaciously held when the belief has been publicly announced to others.
Example:
Example:
You continue smoking even though research shows it is definitely connected to lung cancer and other harmful health problems.
Belief Bias
Concept/Term:
Belief bias is the tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid. In summary, belief bias is the tendency for a person's beliefs to distort their logic.
Example:
I will accept that some good swimmers are not professional water polo players, but will reject an assertion that some professional water polo players are not good swimmers, which is possible.
Framing
Concept/Term:
The framing effect is classified under cognitive biases. Framing describes that presenting the same option in different formats can alter people’s decisions. Specifically, individuals have a tendency to select inconsistent choices, depending on whether the question is framed to concentrate on losses or gains. A negative of framing effects is that people are often only provided options within the context of one of the two frames.
Example:
Alcohol companies spend millions of dollars framing advertisements, making children and adults see only positive gains of alcohol. The factual concern is that alcohol promotion through media attracts underage drinkers and threatens the safety of children.
Overconfidence
Concept/Term:
The overconfidence effect refers to the human tendency to be more confident in one's behaviors and physical characteristics than one should be. Overconfidence is most likely witnessed after a series of "successes" and can lead to excessive risk taking. Because individuals think they have become informed, they are more confident in their beliefs. In that sense, individuals may be confident to improve success rates, even though the confidence levels are still reflecting unfounded certainty. This is sometimes used to explain why most investors have problems when investing.
Example:
Flying a small single-engine airplane may look easy to do when someone observes a skilled pilot. He or she relates it to driving a car. Seeing this and saying, "I could do that; it's easy," is being over confident when you have never flown before and have unfounded certainty.
Availability Heuristic
Concept/Term:
Availability Heuristic refers to how easily something that you've seen or heard can be accessed in your memory. People tend to think of things they remember as more important than things they don't remember as easily. People base their prediction of an outcome on the vividness and emotional impact rather than on actual probablity. Various factors can affect availability. Things which are easier to imagine, for example if they are very vivid makes themselves more available. Things which are uncomfortable to think about can push people into denial, making these thoughts unavailable.
Example:
After seeing many news stories of home foreclosures, people may judge that the likelihood of this event is greater. This may be true because it is easier to think of examples of this event.
Saturday, November 20, 2010
Phase Two Part Five Question Six
Ways to Incorporate Thinking and Language into a Learning Strategy:
1. Thinking allows people to form concepts that organize into sections of retained information. Thinking allows people to solve problems and make reasonable judgments. In the learning strategy, one could read the important document and after reading a passage, reflect and think on what the person has just read. This thinking process after each passage will allow the person to create a general idea for the passage and truly understand the concept through the thinking process.
2. Language is the framework for thinking and is built based on growing experience. Language can be incorporated in the learning strategy by breaking unfamiliar words into words that people can comprehend. When a term or concept is read in the book, one can break down the term to its roots in order to understand the term and therefore make a connection to psychology, overall preparing themselves for the AP exam using simple language basics.
~~Tyler T
3.To use thinking and language in our learning strategy we will use mnemonic devices so students can make relationships and connections to the information they are learning. Therefore, the information will be stored and ready to be retrieved by an easy fashion.
~~Amanda
4. To use critical thinking and language, we could incorporate class discussion because this would allow us to gain the perspectives of all other students. More information, in all different opinions, would "stick" in our mind.
~~Maggie
5. To use language in an abstract way, we could group words together through chunking. This is when we group words or numbers into phrases that make sense so that we can remember it easier. For example, if we are given the words eat, cake, boy. We can rearrange them to make a phrase that is easy to remember and comprehend; Boy eats cake.
~~Collin
~~Tyler T
3.To use thinking and language in our learning strategy we will use mnemonic devices so students can make relationships and connections to the information they are learning. Therefore, the information will be stored and ready to be retrieved by an easy fashion.
~~Amanda
4. To use critical thinking and language, we could incorporate class discussion because this would allow us to gain the perspectives of all other students. More information, in all different opinions, would "stick" in our mind.
~~Maggie
5. To use language in an abstract way, we could group words together through chunking. This is when we group words or numbers into phrases that make sense so that we can remember it easier. For example, if we are given the words eat, cake, boy. We can rearrange them to make a phrase that is easy to remember and comprehend; Boy eats cake.
~~Collin
Phase Two Part Five Question Three
Problem-solving is the active effort people make to achieve a goal that cannot be easily attained, while functional fixedness is the tendency to think only of an object’s most common use in the effort to problem solve. As an example, if someone is in their car and is very thirsty and has a bottle of cola but not a bottle opener, problem solving would be to use that person's car keys, while functional fixedness is when the person doesn’t think of using the car key to open the bottles because it is meant to open a car.
Phase Two Part Four Question Three
When studying for tests, one should always try to find a large space of time in his or her schedule. Many people do not retain an adequate amount of information unless they actually give themselves the time to absorb and understand the material, while questioning along the way. If one were to rush themselves, he or she will feel more pressure and panic, which leads to poor test scores. One should also always eat before studying and get other small projects out of the way, so they do not think about them while studying. Although this may seem obvious, the number one thing anyone should do in order to prepare themselves for an exam of for an AP exam is to read the textbook given in class. One should pay attention to keywords like "always", "except", and "none". Also, try to find out the central idea of the paragraph in any given chapter. This means that when someone studies, they have to be able to relate the concepts to something bigger because creating own ways of defining and computing ideas will ensure that one will know the material. In addition, prepare ahead of time, so if a topic seems unfamiliar, one has time to meet with the professor and work out a way of understanding the concept because it’s more than just memorizing.
Monocular Cues
Monocular cues deal with items that can be process with one eye. Relative size, texture gradient, aerial perspective, and linear perspective are the main components that make up monocular cues. In relative sizing, if two objects are roughly the same size, to object that looks the largest will be judged as being the closest to the observer. In texture gradient, when one is looking at an object that extends into the distance, the texture becomes less and less apparent the farther it goes into the distance. In aerial perspective, objects that are farther away seem to be blurred or slightly hazy due to atmosphere. Lastly, linear perspective incorporates the idea that parallel lines appear to meet as they travel into the distance. For example, the outer edges of a road seem to grow closer and closer until they appear to meet. The closer together the two lines are, the greater the distance will seem.
Binocular Cues
Humans are able to see things that are both far and near, and can actually identify where those objects are in space, meaning, they can determine if those objects are close or far away. This sort of depth perception requires both of our eyes, which is referred to as binocular cues. In other words, the disparity between the images projected onto the retina of both eyes is used to create a depth effect. Binocular cues is also referred to as stereoscopic vision.
Source Amnesia
Source amnesia is an explicit memory disorder in which someone can recall certain information, but they do not know where or how they obtained it. The disorder is where source information surrounding facts are severely distorted and are unable to be recalled. Because source amnesia prohibits recollection of the context specific information surrounding facts in experienced events, confusion concerning the content of events arises, a prominent indicator of brain disease.
Observational Learning
One personal example of observational learning in my life was how I learned to set the table. I used to watch my mom set the table when I was younger, until I was able to set everything up on my own.
Misinformation Effect
The misinformation effect occurs when an individual's recall of an event he or she has witnessed becomes altered by introducing misleading information into the scenario. One prominent experiment that represents misinformation in relation to reconstruction of automobile destruction was conducted by Elizabeth Loftus. Loftus showed footage of a car accident to participants. Later, some were asked the speed at which the car was going when it crashed into another car. Others were asked to give an estimate speed at which they personally thought the car smashed into the other car. Those who were asked the question with the word "smashed" in it remembered seeing broken glass, when in fact, there was no broken glass.
Repression
Proposed by Sigmund Freud, repression is the mental action of deleting wants and desires from one's perception at that moment and restraining them so that the person is incapable of feeling thought. Repression is a type of coping mechanism used by most people. People repress painful events in their life to preserve the future. Unfortunately, if repression continues to grow, due to the feelings of fear within, self-destructive or isolation may occur. Therapeutic activities can greatly impact the affects of repression and get these actions under control.
Proactive vs. Retroactive Interference
Proactive Interference:
Proactive interference occurs when an organism is trying to recall something that it has memorized relatively recently, but an irrelevant, past memory distracts the one recollection that the organism wishes to recollect. To summarize, proactive interference is one aspect of this theory and occurs when information learned earlier disrupts the recall of material learned later. This can become a problem when new information cannot be used correctly as it is interfered with by the older information.
Retroactive Interference:
Retroactive interference occurs when an organism is trying to recall something that it has committed to memory in the past, but some similar idea that the organism has learned since that time obstructs the ability to correctly call what the organism wanted to have in mind. To summarize, retroactive interference is when a person has difficulty recalling old information because of newly learned information.
Mood Congruent Memory
The mood congruent memory relates how individual's moods bias memories. Mood congruent states that people have a greater likelihood of recalling an item when a specific mood matches the mood someone were in when the event happened. Many organisms associate good and bad events with synonymous emotions, which are called retrieval cues. For example, being depressed releases negative associations while being happy, allows for positive associations.
Déjà Vu
Déjà Vu occurs when an organism may feel that a current situation is similar to a situation from the past, even if there is evidence that the situation could not have occurred previously. This is due to the fact that hints from the past experience may have subconsciously initiated the earlier experience. Déjà Vu has been attributed to ideas ranging from paranormal disturbances to neurological disorders. In more recent studies, connections have been made between déjà vu and the understanding of human recognition memory. Déjà vu is believed to be an example of familiarity-based recognition, a part or recognition memory when the current situation feels familiar, but one does not remember when it has happened before .
Examples of Observational Learning
Tyler:
At a local soccer game, Chelsea learned not to stand too close to a soccer goal post because she saw another spectator move away after getting hit in the stomach by the soccer ball due to a bad shot by the player. The other spectator stopped standing close to the soccer goal because of operant conditioning (getting hit by the ball). This acted as positive punishment for standing too close. Chelsea, through observational learning, was indirectly conditioned to move away.
How do punishments impact your learning here in school?
In school, most students react to punishments given by the school that impacts our learning. For most students, when a punishment is given, negative or positive, a student will hopefully not perform this action again. Positive punishment occurs when someone administers and aversive stimulus. This occurs when students don't pay attention in class and receive a poor grade or when a student receives a detention. Negative punishment occurs when someone withdraws a desirable stimulus. For example, when students are using their phone during school, a teacher may take a away the desirable stimulus. Also other privileges such as the library and computers may be revoked. Punishment can create fear and make students in school afraid of doing a certain action that would result as punishment. Therefore students are conditioned to behave with desirable actions of the school so they don't receive punishment.
~~Amanda
~~Amanda
In your normal day here at school, explain a time where you have seen the use of positive reinforcement and one of negative reinforcement.
In a normal school day, I see positive reinforcement when teachers hand back good grades. The teachers are giving out good grades to the student as a result from the student knowing the information and studying. This has had a large impact on me because I always want to do my best to receive good grades. Therefore, I always make sure I have time to study so after I take a test and receive my grade, the teacher is giving me a good grade. I have been conditioned to study and receive good grades. Negative reinforcement occurs in school when teachers give students detention. Even though the teacher is giving the student something, it is generally taking away time. The student loses time by having to attend detention. Detention has had an impact on me because I know all of the actions required to receive a detention. Therefore, I have never and will never perform these actions because I know that I do not want to receive a detention to take away my time.
~~Amanda
~~Amanda
Phase 2, Part 2
The most effective way to teach every learner neuroscience without falling back on rote memorization is to use all of ones' senses. For example, instead of just reading a textbook, one could talk and discuss the information in a group daily. Also, one could use information maps and other visual learning devices. One could draw or sketch the information to better understand the information. Additionally, one can learn by experience through demonstrations of the information to be learned.
-- Amanda, Collin, Tyler O, Tyler T, Maggie
-- Amanda, Collin, Tyler O, Tyler T, Maggie
Friday, November 19, 2010
How can understanding classical and operant conditioning help us to understand the way we learn?
By understanding classical and operant conditioning we are able to understand the way we learn. In classical conditioning a neutral stimulus is used along with an unconditioned, which causes us to learn that the neutral stimulus will cause the same response as the unconditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning there would be a reinforcement stimulus after a certain response to an unconditioned stimulus, which causes us to learn that the unconditioned stimuls is either a good thing or a bad thing.
First example: When a teacher tells us to clear their desks, we automatically think that there will be a quiz. This is because we have been classically conditioned. As young students, the first time we were told to clear our desks we had no clue what was going on. Then the teacher gave us a pop quiz. As a result, we think that whenever we are told to clear our desks there must be a pop quiz, even though this is not always true.
Second example: If someone driving a car sees the stoplight turn red, then he knows that he should stop. The reason that he learned this is because one time he ran the stoplight and ended up getting a ticket. He remembers that he was really upset and frustrated about having to pay a lot of money; therefore, whenever he sees a red light he knows that he should stop because of the negative reinforcement, paying a fine.
First example: When a teacher tells us to clear their desks, we automatically think that there will be a quiz. This is because we have been classically conditioned. As young students, the first time we were told to clear our desks we had no clue what was going on. Then the teacher gave us a pop quiz. As a result, we think that whenever we are told to clear our desks there must be a pop quiz, even though this is not always true.
Second example: If someone driving a car sees the stoplight turn red, then he knows that he should stop. The reason that he learned this is because one time he ran the stoplight and ended up getting a ticket. He remembers that he was really upset and frustrated about having to pay a lot of money; therefore, whenever he sees a red light he knows that he should stop because of the negative reinforcement, paying a fine.
Do you think that either plays a role in how you respond to teachers and your academic role here at Wilson?
I believe that operant conditioning plays a big role in how I respond to teachers because I have seen what happens when students disrespect their teachers. For instance, I know that if I were to talk back to a teacher because of a bad grade I would get in trouble. As a result, the probability of getting a bad grade, the stimulus, causing me to talk back, the response, will decrease due to the fact that I would get in trouble, the punishment stimulus, which would make me upset.
~~Maggie Lawrence
I also believe that operant conditioning plays a large role in how I respond to teachers and my academic role in Wilson. I know that when I study, I hopefully will receive a good grade. After I receive a good grade, generally teachers will acknowledge my hard work. Therefore, I have been conditioned that when I study, I receive good grades and "praise." From this conditioning, I will most likely always study since I expect and want good grades.
~~Amanda Horvat
~~Maggie Lawrence
I also believe that operant conditioning plays a large role in how I respond to teachers and my academic role in Wilson. I know that when I study, I hopefully will receive a good grade. After I receive a good grade, generally teachers will acknowledge my hard work. Therefore, I have been conditioned that when I study, I receive good grades and "praise." From this conditioning, I will most likely always study since I expect and want good grades.
~~Amanda Horvat
Compare Classical and Operant Conditioning
In Classical conditioning you are trying to increase the probability of a response to a certain conditioned stimulus by using a conditioned stimulus followed by the unconditioned stimulus that already produces a certain unconditioned response. On the other hand, in Operant conditioning you use a stimulus after the response in order to reinforce the conditioned stimulus that comes before the response. These two types of conditioning are similar in the fact that they both try to increase the probability that a certain response occurs. The biggest difference in the two types of conditioning is that operant conditioning uses a reinforcer or a punishment to determine the likely hood of a certain response; however, classical conditioning does not involve any consequences to the unconditioned response.
Sunday, November 14, 2010
Biology's Role in Learning
When babies are born, their brains contain billions of neurons, which are nerve cells that carry messages to and from the brain to other parts of the body. Synapses form among the neurons that are vital to proper brain functioning; these synapses help individuals make connections between information so that these individuals may learn and develop to their fullest mental abilities. Synapses form by stimulation, particularly during infancy or early childhood. Stimulation can consist of anything that captures the child's attention, resulting in a thought process. When stimulation does occur, synapses are strengthened. Without stimulation, synapses will deteriorate away. While things such as intelligence and creativity may be partially determined by heredity, these biological processes are what determine maximum development.
Real Life Scenario for Operant Conditioning
Example:
Charlie likes to campout in the backyard. He camped-out on every Friday during the month of June. The last time he camped out, some older kids snuck up to his tent while he was sleeping and threw a bucket of cold water on him. Billy has not camped-out for three weeks.
Explanation:
The behavior of camping out was changed. This is a negative reinforcement because the behavior of camping was decreased due to the water. Since a consequence was added and the behavior was reduced, the process was punishment.
Real Life Scenario for Classical Conditioning
Example:
An elderly woman has a fluffy down pillow with some of the down sticking out of the fabric at her local retirement center, Apple Springs. When she first goes to bed and tries out the pillow, a piece of down tickles her nose, which makes her sneeze. This happens every time she goes to bed. Soon she sneezes every time she lays down on any kind of pillow at Apple Springs.
Explanation:
The unconditioned stimulus is that the down tickles the nose of the elderly woman. The unconditioned stimulus is that the elderly woman sneezes. When the down tickles the nose is combined with the type of pillow, the conditioned stimulus, the conditioned response becomes that the woman sneezes.
Example of Classical Conditioning
An example of classical conditioning would be the following:
In order to treat bedwetting, a pad that is sensitive to dampness is placed under sheets. When this pad becomes wet, it sounds an alarm and you wakeup. Eventually you don’t need the alarm to wake up and your bladder will wake you up.
The unconditioned stimulus is the alarm, which also makes the waking up an unconditional stimulus. One the alarm is paired with the full bladder, the conditioned response is to wake up.
Aquisition
Acquisition refers is some of the first stages of learning when a response is created or established. When concerned with classical conditioning, acquisition is the period of time when the stimulus reveals the conditioned response. In other words, acquisition is the initial stage of the learning or conditioning process. In this stage, some response is being associated with some stimulus to the point where one may say the organism has received the same response. During this stage the response is strengthened so that the topic is truly learned.
Ivan Pavlov's Experiment (Outlines, Goals, and Findings)
Outline and Goals:
In a series of experiments, Pavlov tried to figure out how saliva and lab coats were linked. This was his outline. Ivan noticed that people who were in lab coats made the dogs drool. This was because the scientists would feed their dogs in lab coats. In order to figure out this phenomenon, his goal was to strike a bell when the dogs were fed. If the bell was sounded in close association with their meal, the dogs would hopefully learn to associate the sound of the bell with food. After a while, at the mere sound of the bell, Ivan expected them to respond by drooling.
Findings:
Pavlov worked on the conditioned reflex, a fundamental aspect of learning. He showed that if the presentation of food to a dog was repeatedly accompanied by the sound of a bell, then the dog would respond by coming to the bell as if it was food. Pavlov regarded salivation on sight of food as an unconditional response and the subsequent salivation on sound of bell alone as a conditional response. Salivation in response to food was unlearned and was the unconditioned response. The unconditioned food stimulus was the food because the food in the mouth unconditionally starts salivation. Now, the conditioned response is the salivation , while the conditioned stimulus is the bell sounding. In addition, he is responsible for many of the basic concepts and can be regarded as the founder of the experimental study of animal learning. Pavlov also discovered that these reflexes originate in the cerebral cortex of the brain.
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